DECEITFUL SPEECHES IN XENOPHON’S ANABASIS

Abstract

The deception of friends in the Anabasis is complicated. The narrator openly condemns the continuous and systematic deceit practiced by Menon against his friends (2.6.22-29) and also represents Xenophon the character as saying that it is shameful to deceive friends (7.6.21). Nevertheless, he presents Cyrus, Clearchus and Xenophon, the three most important leaders, all deceiving friends, or at least people on their own side, in certain speeches. This deception does not automatically make them into villains, however. This paper will explore the apparent contradiction in the above by investigating the intended effects and functions of the deceitful speeches given by these characters.

I demonstrate that the deceitful speeches in the Anabasis create several effects. They produce dramatic tension and a shared irony between the narrator and the reader, and also engage the reader in the story. They also have several functions. Firstly, they characterise the speakers. This characterisation specifically develops the picture of the speakers as leaders, because their particular type of deceit is representative of their wider leadership style and aims. These speeches furthermore indicate that the author is interested in what deceitful speeches can show about the realities of war and the adapted morality of lying in wartime. In this respect, Xenophon appears to indicate that some forms of deceit are acceptable under certain conditions. Comparison with the presentation of deceit in some of Xenophon’s other works confirms this interpretation. Additionally, these speeches assign responsibility for certain events to Clearchus and Cyrus, and justify to the reader certain decisions made by Xenophon and the Greek mercenaries. I conclude that Xenophon has a didactic aim in including these speeches, presenting examples both to follow and shun.